Basics of Woodworking

Tools and their uses

Woodworking requires a vast array of special tools and devices. The most sensible approach for the beginner is to buy only the tools that are absolutely necessary. One tool can often he substituted for another: a combination square can serve as a marking gauge or even as a depth gauge and it is perfectly all right to use a large nail sharpened to a point instead of a centre punch.

Woodworkers tend to be very fussy and pedantic about tools and techniques, often for a good reason, but it frequently inhibits people who want to make a few things around the house with their limited selection of tools. What is ultimately important is that the finished article is produced with no loss of personal safety.

Always buy the very best tools you can afford; it is false economy to buy a cheap tool, which will neither last long nor do the job well. Most good quality tools last a lifetime if they are properly stored and looked after.
The use and care of tools is covered in the relevant sections of this chapter.

Basic tool kit

1. COMBINATION,SQUARE. For use as ordinary try square and also to mark45 mitres. Can serve as a substitute for a marking gauge and as a depth gauge. The 300mm long steel ruler can he used separately as ruler or short straight edge.

2. TAPE MEASURE. Buv a retractable one with a locking mechanism. 3m length is most versatile.

3. LEVEL. A 600mm long one is adequate for most jobs. For occasional use a less expensive type is adequate. For accurate work a 1.2m metal level is-excellent.

4. VICE. If you have an old workbench or plan to make the one shown on page 48, buy a sturdy woodworker's vice which bolts permanently to the workbench. Alternatively buy a smaller vice which can be clamped temporarily to the edge of a table or bench. Although it will not hold large pieces of wood, it will suffice for most work.

5 G-CRAMP. Invaluable for clamping glued joints, repairs and holding work to bench. Buy at least one 150mm size.

6 TENON SAW. A 250mm, 14-point saw is useful for all small sawing jobs. For cutting large pieces or plywood, buy a larger panel saw or power circular saw.

7 BENCH HOOK. Indispensable for holding small pieces when sawing. Follow instructions on page 23 for making your own.

8 CHISELS. Start off with two bevel-edge chisels, 6.5m and 19mm sires. Add 12mm and 25mm later.

9 MALLET. A wooden mallet for use with chisels (in a pinch use a hammer, but only on tough plastic chisel handles). Also for tapping wood joints together.

10. ELECTRIC DRILL. The current low prices for power drills make these a better buy than a hand-drill and a brace. A two-speed hammer action model can he used in masonry and wood.

11 DRILL BITS. One set of carbon steel twist drill bits up to 6.5mm diameter. One countersink hit (high speed type for use in electric drill). Buy larger flat bits or accurate dowel bits as they are needed.

12. BLOCK PLANE. A small plane with a blade set at a low angle for cutting across end grain. Useful for trimming off sawn ends of boards, for bevelling edges and many other small planing jobs. Buy this as a first all-purpose plane and add the smoothing plane later.

13. SMOOTHING PLANE. A 250mm long general purpose plane for straightening board edges and other general work, such as planing off a door or window to fit.

14. SHARPENING STONE. Buv a combination oil stone for sharpening chisels, plane blades, and other cutting tools. See instructions on page 27 for making a box to hold the oil stone. A honing guide is also very useful, though not necessary, to sharpen blades at the correct angle.

15. HAMMER. First buy a general purpose claw hammer for driving and pulling nails and pins. Later add a pin hammer for work with small pins.

16. NAIL-PUNCIL For sinking pin heads below wood surface.

17. SCREWDRIVERS. Start with one small screwdriver for small delicate jobs and a large one for general work. Later buy a useful pump action ratchet screwdriver with interchangeable points.

18. SANDING BLOCK. An inexpensive cork sanding block for use with glasspaper in finishing wood.

19. FILE OR RASP. Not essential, but very useful for rounding and smoothing comers and edges.

20. PLIERS. Again not necessary, but a versatile tool which can he used for many jobs besides woodworking.

Marking and measuring

A good selection of measuring arid ,marking tools is essential iu a workshop. For even, the simplest job it is very important that the timber is measured accurately and that the ends are square You will need a try-square. marking gauge, straight edge, level steel tape and pencil for most work.

The first step in any project is to check that the pieces are square and straight, then measure and mark them before sawing or planing.
The degree of accuracy required varies with each job.

For rough carpentry work the sides do not have to be exactly square and the length can be a few millimetres off. For finer work, measure with a ruder and use a marking or trimming knife rather than a pencil to mark the pieces. The cutting line marked by the knife is thinner and therefore more precise than a pencil line. Use a finer tenon saw to cut the pieces

Try-square

A try-square, available in various sides up to about 300mm, is used to mark right angles. This is referred to as "squaring-off" for sawing or planing wood. It is also used to check that sections of wood have true 90° angles and square ends. Mark the wood with a sharp pencil or a marking knife, which scores the wood for more accurate sawing.
Combination square
The combination square is a useful through less accurate substitute for the try-square. Use it to mark 45° mitres as well as 90° squares. It is also a hand- substitute marking gauge or a depth gauge to measure, for example, the depth of halving joints.

Marking gauge

the marking gauge is the traditional toed for marking a line parallel to the edge. Set it to the required width, then run the pin along the surface to score a fine parallel line. The marking gauge is very useful in making wood joints such as halving joints or mortise and tenon joint. because the line scored makes an accurate starting guide for the chisel.

Straight edge

It is essential, especially when working with large sheet materials such as plywood, to use an accurate straight edge for marking and checking that pieces are square. Buy a tin steel ruler or make a straight edge out of, say, a piece of sturdy plywood which you know to be straight. Indicate the straight edge with a mark and hang it within easy reach.

Compass

Mark circles with a compass, or for large circles, a piece of string fixed with a pencil to one end. For small diameters, such as those used in rounding corners, use a household tin, plate, jar lid or whatever is handy, as long as it has roughly the correct radius.

Level

Check that surfaces are horizontal or vertical with a level. Adjust one end of the surface until the air bubble is centred between the small marks in the level.

Rules and measures

Measure lengths with a ruler or a tape measure depending on the job. For short accurate measurements, such as the exact width of a hoard it is better to use a steel ruler with fine gradations but in practice, most woodworkers use a tape measure for all measurements. The small hook on the end of the tape may work loose with age, and it is important occasionally to check the accuracy against a steel ruler. Use the steel tape measure for long measurements with one end held by the hook on the edge of the wood. For internal measurements allow am extra 50mm to allow for the width of the steel case.

Hammers and mallets

A hammer is a basic part of any tool kit. It is designed for driving in and pulling out nails but in practice it is also used for various jobs, such as tapping on a screwdriver to loosen a hard-to­remove screw.

BELOW, FROM LEFT: The claw hammer is an all-purpose type for driving and pulling out nails but is too heavy for working with panel pins and lightweight nails. The lighter pin or cross pein hammer is best suited for this work. A wooden mallet is not essential as you can hold a piece of srap wood between the hammer and the work, but it is useful for chiselling as it does not damage the handles of the chisels.

Claw hammer

The general purpose claw hammer, with a steel or wooden handle, is available in various weights and it is important to choose one that is comfortable for you. Use a claw hammer to drive in host large nails. Grip it near the end and start the nail with a few light taps, then progress to harder blows. It takes a little practice to drive nails without bending them.

Keep the face of the hammer bright and clean by rubbing it on fine glasspaper. It is much easier to drive in a nail straight with a clean hammer face.

The claw hammer is used to pull out nails, but always remember to protect your work with a scrap of wood or piece of cardbotird.

To pull out nails with a claw hammer put a block of wood under the head to get better leverage and to protect the surface underneath.

Cross-pein or pin hammer

Most woodworkers use a cross-pein or a Warrington hammer on smaller nails and especially on panel pins.
The cross-pein hammer is used with a light touch to prevent the delicate panel pins from bending. To drive in very short, difficult-to-hold pins, start with the finer cross-pein and then finish with a few taps from the face end. Alternatively, use a piece of cardboard to hold very short pins in place for hammering. Push the pin through the cardboard and hold the edge of the cardboard until the pin is well-hammered in before tearing it off.

Nail punch

Panel pins can be sunk in wood by driving the small heads below the surface with a nail punch. Nail punches are available in various sizes with points from 1.5 to 4.5mm in diameter to match various sizes of pins. Drive in the pin with a hammer, leaving the head just above the surface of the wood to prevent damaging it with the hammer. Hold the punch firmly on the head of the pin and drive it below the surface with one or two light taps. Fill the small hole with woodfiller coloured to match the wood and sand it smooth.

Wooden mallet

The steel head of a hammer could damage or dent chisel handles, particularlv wooden ones. A wooden mallet, usually made of beech, is used instead of a hammer. Although the mallet is quite large and robust it can he used to produce very delicate work. It is quite easy to control a chisel for making a cut such as a halving joint by using a few light taps with the mallet. Professional woodworkers also use a soft rubber-faced hammer to tap together wood joints and to adjust glued-up frameworks. The soft face leaves no marks on the wood. For a home-made substitute, tape several layers of cardboard to the face of your mallet. This will soften the blows and allow you to tap home stubborn wood joints without marking the wood and causing unsightly marks.

A handy trick for driving in small nails and panel pins is to push the pin through a piece of sturdy cardboard so that you have something to hold on to.

3 A nail punch makes it possible for nails and pins to lie below the surface of the timber; the holes can then be filled and sanded smooth.

Saws

You can manage with one or two saws when you first begin woodworking, but a wider range will make your work easier. The large panel saw (1) serves an all-purpose tool for both ripping and crosscutting.

The smaller tenon or back saw (2) is reinforced along the back with a steel or brass bar. There is also a special back saw(3) for cutting dovetails. Coping saws (4) and fret saws (5) are used for cutting irregular shapes or for cutting out interior areas of a board.

Saws are used for cutting with the grain (ripping) or cutting across the grain (crosscutting). Think of the grain as bundles of drinking straws; it is easy to see that the action of cutting along the grain is very different from cutting across it. The teeth of the saw do the cutting and basically it is the number of teeth per 25mm that determines the type of cut the saw makes. The more teeth there are, the finer the cut. A rip saw has about 6 teeth per 25mm (referred to as 6 points) whereas an extremely fine dovetail saw may have as many as 32 points per 25mm.

Sawing is quite easy with a little practice. It is most important to use a sharp saw: it is difficult, even for a professional woodworker, to saw straight and cleanly with a dull saw. A dull saw is also dangerous, because you tend to force it and lose control of the tool. If in doubt about a saw's sharpness, send it to a "saw doctor." Large hardware shops usually offer this sharpening service for a reasonable price.

 

General purpose saws

The larger rip and crosscut stows are about 600mm long and are used for rough cutting of larger pieces of timber. The panel saw is a combination of the two and the best general purpose saw to buy. It is particularly useful for tutting tip large panels of plywood, hence its name.

Using a panel saw

Field a panel saw with the index finger pointing along the handle for better control. Start the saw cut with a few light strokes, carefully using the thumb of your free hand as a guide. then use long, firm strokes to saw the wood. Remember that saws cut only on the downward or "away'' stroke.

Support the wood while sawing on a couple of trestles, easily made by nailing together offcuts. Give extra support to large panels of plywood or chipboard by placing two or three boards under the panel on either side of the saw cut. Remember that the saw removes a 2 to 3mm width of wood called the " kerf", so if you saw along the centre of the line you will end up with a smaller piece than you measured for. Instead, always saw on the waste' stile of the marked line so you cut oft a piece of the exact dimensions you want. Leave a bit of extra waste if you intend to finish exactly to the marked line by planing off.

Using a rip or crosscut saw

The panel saw is designed more for cross-cutting than for ripping. For ripping long and thick hoards it may he better to buy a special rip saw, or alternatively to use a portable circular saw

In ripping, saw along the waste side of the line, supporting the board on two trestles, cramping it down to hold it steady if necessary. To prevent the saw jamming on long cuts, wedge a small piece of wood in the cut as you proceed to separate the pieces and make it easier to saw.

Similarly, in crosscutting support the board on the trestles or on the bench with the part to be sawn off protruding. Saw with long even strokes and remember to hold the off-cut before it falls off, otherwise it may tear the wood as it hangs.

Using a tenon saw

The tenon saw is a small crosscut saw with the top of the blade stiffened with a piece of brass or steel to keep it straight. It is the best saw for small, accurate work.

Buy a 14 point, 250mm long tenon saw and use it, with a bench hook, for cutting small pieces and also for cutting wood joints, such as halving or mitre joints. For best results hold the work firmly in the bench hook or cramped to the bench, if necessary, and saw with firm, even strokes using the full length of the blade. With a little practice clean accurate cuts can be made

Using a coping saw and fret saw

Curves are sawn with a coping saw or a fret saw.

The coping saw is the more common of the two. It is used frequently in a workshop for cutting various curves in the wood up to about 25mm thick. To fix the blade, first unscrew the handle a few turns to loosen the tension. Fix the top end of the blade in place, teeth usually pointing towards the top and, holding the saw against the bench with the handle against your body, force the ends of the saw together to fix the blade in place. Finally tighten the handle. The blade of the coping saw can be rotated with the direction of the cut.

To cut a curve, place the wood in a vice or on an easily made holder. Start the cut and stop, if necessary, to change the blade direction as you cut around the curve.

To make an internal cut, first drill a hole within the marked out waste area, then undo the blade and thread it through the hole before doing it up again.

The fret saw has a much larger neck and can therefore cut further in from the edge than the coping saw. It is used for finer, more intricate work such as making models and jig saw puzzles.

Provided you use a jigsaw and the purpose-built holding device fixed into the vice, it is quite easy to cut intricate shapes such as a jigsaw puzzle.

Caring for your saws

Saws must he kept sharp. A blunt saw is difficult to use and can be dangerous, and should be sharpened regularly. If you saw through a nail your saw will undoubtedly need sharpening. This job can be done at home with files to sharpen the teeth and a special "saw set" to set each tooth at the required angle, but it is much easier to send your saws to a "saw doctor" who will do the job expertly. Ask at your local hardware shop. They usually make a small charge for sharpening saws. It is worth doing often, as it is much easier and better to work with a sharp saw.

To store saws, hang them up by their handles in a cabinet or on the wall. Occasionally wipe the blade down with oil to prevent it from rusting, and keep the handle clean and smooth.

To change the blade in a coping or fret saw, simply loosen the handle a few turns, slip the new blade in position and tighten up the handle. 2 To lair on the down stroke with a coping or fretsaw, turn the blade so that the teeth face downwards. 3 Alternatively, install the saw blade with the teeth facing upwards fir sawing on the up stroke.

Chisels

The main types of chisels include bevel edge chisels, firmer chisels and mortise chisels. The most common is the bevel edge chisel, which has tapered sides to enable it to cut into tight corners. As with all tools, chisels are safer and more effective it they are kept very sharp. Woodworkers keep a sharpening stone on the side of the bench and sharpen their chisels periodically to keep the edge razor sharp.

Chisels come in various blade widths from 4mm to about 38mm. It is useful to have a selection of widths to choose the exact size for the job. Foe most useful all-purpose sizes are 6mm, l2mm and 19mm.

Using chisels

Chisels are used primarily to cut out wood joints, such as halving joints, but they are also used for many other small jobs such as removing wood to fit hinges and other hardware.

A chisel can be used to shave, chop, or pare the wood. It is a sharp, dangerous instrument and must be handled carefully and thoughtfully. Always hold the work down firmly in a vice and never hold your other hand behind the blade.

For horizontal shaving, as in cutting a halving joint, remove the wood gradually (1) to an exact marked depth. Make several saw Cuts it possible to make it easier to remove the wood with the chisel and slice the wood away at an angle (2), pushing with one hand and controlling the chisel with the other and taking oft a little at a time. Work down to the mark, then work from the other side to the line and finally shave away the rest until it is smooth (3).

Making a horizontal cut:

1 Cut away the wood between the marked lines from one side of the board.

2 Then cut to the required depth from the other side so that the waste wood forms a triangular mound

3 Chisel away the waste wood, making the channel smooth.

To cut a rectangular slot such as for a mortise and tenon joint, first drill away most of the wood within the marks then use the correct width chisel with a mallet to chop away most of the wood. Remove the last layers of waste by paring with hand pressure.

Sharpening chisels

Chisels need frequent sharpening to keep them razor sharp. If the blade is badly dented or worn, it must first he ground smooth on a grinding wheel before sharpening, but usually only the edgy requires sharpening on an oilstone. Spread a thin film of oil or paraffin on the stone before using it. To make sharpening easier, hold the chisel in a honing guide at the exact 30* angle (or the recommended grinding angle) rubbing it back and forth. Finally rub the flat side sideways on the stone to remove the "burr" formed in sharpening, and test the blade for sharpness.

LEFT: To sharpen the blade of a chisel, hold it at approximately 30' as shown and press down firmly as you rub it back and forth across an oiled stone.

Planes

Most planes are used to shave off a thin layer of wood from a board to make it straight and square. Planes are made in various lengths, sizes and shapes, from the long 600mm jointer plane to the small block plane. There are also special-purpose planes such as rebate planes, moulding planes, and compass planes which plane curved shapes.

For most practical purposes only two or three planes are required. You will need one medium length plane for straightening wood. This can be the small smoothing plane which is 200-250mm long, or the 350mm long jack plane.

Using a plane

Hold the wood firmly in place on the bench with a bench stop at the front end, and use the plane to remove any high points or slight curves in the wood. Adjust the blade iron to the required depth, then, using a long smooth motion, plane from one end right to the other, carrying through beyond the hoard at the end. Even shavings conic with practice, but it will not take you long to enjoy the feeling of planing off long ribbon-like shavings. Check the board fre­quently by sighting along its length and by holding a try-square to the edge to check that it is square.

It is important to keep the plane blades (irons) sharp by frequent sharpening. Adjust the blade so that it is straight and set to the right depth to produce shavings that are the right thickness and not planing off too much at once.

Block planes

The small block plane is useful for small planing jobs and because the blade is set at a low angle, for planing across end grain. Use the block plane to trim oft the ends of sawnboards. Plane from both ends towards the middle to avoid splitting the wood on the corners.

Rebate planes

The rebate plane is used to cut a small recess, or rebate, in framework to hold a glass or wood panel. It has an-adjustable depth stop and an adjustable side fence for cutting rebates of various depths and widths. To plane a rebate, hold the plane firmly against the wood and start planing at the forward end gradually removing more and more wood further back until the entire rebate is rut.

Sharpening blades

Sharpen plane blades frequently on an oilstone as for chisel blades, holding them at an angle of 30°. Use a honing guide, if necessary, to hold the blade accurately as you rub it back and forth. Finally rub the flat backside sideways to remove the burr that has formed.

The correct way to use a plane is to stand with your weight over the work, holding the plane at the edge of the board. Use a firm, sweeping motion to bring the place across the length of the board, passing firmly and evenly as you do so. When you reach the end of the board, continue the motion beyond it to avoid a jagged effect.

Drills

Two types of drills are used to make holes: the hand-drill and the brace. An electric drill is more versatile for most purposes but many, woodworkers prefer to use hand tools.

The hand-drill

Use the hand drill for small holes up to 6 or 7mm diameter, using twist drill bits. Buy a set of drill hits from approximately 1 mm to 6.5mm diameter. Place the bit in the centre of the chuck and tighten it by turning the chuck with one hand while holding the handle still with the other hand.

Always punch a small hole with a centre punch or a sharpened nail, as a guide for starting the drill bit.

To drill a hole, hold the main handle with one hand and turn the handle with the other, reversing the direction to remove the drill hit. To countersink screw holes use a special countersink bit with the hand drill.

When using either a brace or a hand drill. hold it vertically to the surface before you turn the handle. Use one hand to steady the drill and the other hard to turn it.

The Brace

Use a brace for larger and deeper holes, with auger bits for general purpose drilling or dowel drill hits for boring accurate clean holes for dowel joints.

Auger bits are available in sizes from 6.3mm to about 38mm diameter, but the most useful sizes are 9mm, 12mm, 19mm and 25mm diameters. You can also buy a countersink bit and even a screwdriver bit for use in the brace. The screwdriver hit is particularly handy for large jobs. Fasten the bits in the chuck of the brace by holding the chuck firmly as you turn the handle.
ABOVE, FROM TOP: Auger, dowel and countersink bits; each can be used in a brace.

To use the brace, put pressure with one hand on the formed head as you turn the handle with the other. Drill slowly, particularly in hardwoods, and check that you are holding the drill vertically by placing a try-square on the bench near the work. Never drill straight through a piece of wood. To avoid splitting the underside, drill until just the point of the drill hit shows through, then turn the wood over and finish the hole from the other side.

To drill holes to a fixed depth use a depth stop. For most work it is enough to stick a piece of tape around the hit at the correct depth. For more accurate work make a simple depth stop.

Making a depth stop

Carefully drill a hole in a piece of 38 , 38mm offcut using the required size drill bit. It may he necessary to clamp both sides to avoid splitting the wood. Cut off the depth stop to the required length, shape the end to a taper and slide it on the drill bit so that the required length of drill bit protrudes

A depth stop is a useful attachment for obtaining accurate results, with each hole drilled to the same depth.

Screwdrivers

Screwdrivers have tips of varying sizes and it is important to use the correct screwdriver to fit each screw. The wrong size screwdriver often results in damaged wood around the screw or in a ruined screwhead.

Use the standard straight slot screwdriver for ordinary slotted screws and the Phillips screwdriver for cross slotted screws. It is useful to have three or four screwdrivers of varying types and sizes.

Ratchet screwdrivers

A ratchet screwdriver allows you to turn the screw without changing your grip. The most convenient type is the pump action ratchet, commonly known as the Yankee screwdriver. With this type the various sizes of blades are interchangeable and one screwdriver can be used for all screws. It can also be used in a pump action, just pushing down on the handle to turn in the screw quickly. It can be quite a dangerous tool; it often pinches the fingers or slips off the screwhead and damages the wood. It is a convenient tool but must be used carefully and with respect. When not in use, store it in a dry place.

Shaping and finishing tools

Rasps, files and surforms

These are very useful for shaping wood into irregular forms or for rounding corners and edges.

Rasps are used only on wood. They are available in various sizes and grades of teeth. Buy a 250mm long general purpose rasp with a half-round shape on the back side. Use it for scraping rough shapes in wood held in a vice with one hand firmly on the handle and the other pressing the abrasive rasp into the wood.

Surforms are a convenient modern substitute for rasps. They come in various easy-to-hold sizes and shapes and have replaceable blades. Use the surforms with a pushing or pulling action, depending on the type, to shape the wood. Surforms are specially useful for making sculptures or models in wood.

Finish off the rough surface left by a rasp or surform with a file. Buy a file with one side slightly coarser than the other; use the rough side first and finish off with the smooth side. The same files are also used in metalwork.

Sanding blocks

To smooth down a rough surface in preparation for the final finish (see page 85) use glasspaper or garnet paper wrapped around a cork sanding block. Tear the glasspaper into quarters against the edge of the bench and wrap the piece around the sanding block, which will keep it flat as you sand the wood. If you hold the paper directly in your hand it tends to cause hollows in the surface as you sand.

Cabinet scrapers

Scrapers are thin pieces of flat steel which are used by cabinet makers to shave off very thin layers of wood to make the surface satin smooth. Scrapers are used successfully only on hardwoods and produce a much finer and smoother surface than sanding, which tends to clog the grain with dust.

Scrapers should be carefully sharpened with a fine file, oilstone and burnisher to create a very sharp edge. The scraper does not scrape the wood but shaves away a thin laver of wood.

A useful alternative for the amateur woodworker is the scraper plane which does the same job but is easier to use. It has a blade like a plane mounted between two handles to make it easier to push it forward.

Cramps

Cramps are indispensable for woodworking. Even the smallest job needs to be held down to a worktop, and without a vice, a C-cramp is the easiest way to do it.

There are several types of cramps but the most useful are the C-cramp for small to medium jobs, the mitre cramp for holding frame corners together, and the sash-cramp for gluing tip several hoards into table or counter tops.

Cramps are quite expensive and there never seem to he enough of them in the woodworker's kit, but there are many simple cramping devices you can make yourself, which will serve as inexpensive substitutes.

G-cramps

The two pieces of, say, a halving joint must he held firmly together until the glue sets. Occasionally, nails or screws are good enough to hold them, but more often a G-cramp will do it better. Spread a thin layer of glue on one of the pieces and bring the joint together, cramping firmIy.

G- cramps come in sizes from 50mm to 200mm, and the right size must be chosen for the job, although the 150mm size is convenient for most work. Always use small pieces of wood, cardboard or rubber under the jaws of the cramp to protect the wood underneath. Even the lightest pressure tends to leave small indentations which are difficult to remove, so always remember this precaution.

Cramp the pieces together with light pressure. Cramping too tightly forces the glue out of the joint. For larger joints use two or perhaps three G-cramps to provide even pressure. Leave the work cramped up until the glue has set. White PVA woodworking glue sets in about 30 minutes which is fast and convenient, as you will probably need the cramps for the next joint.

Mitre cramps

Mitre cramps hold the mitred pieces of a frame absolutely square until the glue has set. They are normally used in sets of four, one for each corner to glue the whole frame at once. They are quite expensive but it is easy to make a simple home-made substitute from four corner blocks and a piece of heavy cord, tightened with a stick or short length of dowel. This is a very quick and effective way of making picture frames. (See page 68 for instructions on cutting and assembling a simple picture frame.)

Sash cramps

A table top or any large surface made from solid wood will need several boards glued together to make up the necessary width. Today most tops are made by applying veneers to a piece of chipboard, which is a much simpler process as the sheet is large, stable and flat. Veneered tops do not compare well in durability and lasting beauty with solid wood. Working with beautiful woods is worth planing the boards straight and gluing them to get a solid top.

To cramp tip long boards you will need several sash cramps, one about 100.150mm in from either end and a few in between. Alternate the cramps under and over the wood otherwise the boards tend to how. Remember to use pieces of scrap wood under the heads to prevent marking the wood.

In gluing up, say, a dowelled frame, make sum fhe framework is square as you tighten the cramps. Always lay the work on a sturdy level surface, and check the corners with a try-square as you go along. A convenient way to check is to measure the diagonals with two sticks sharpened to a point.

When the diagonals are equal the frame is square. It may be necessary to place the cramps slightly skew to correct a distorted frame.

Sash cramps are very expensive to buy. A less expensive alternative is to buy separate cramp heads which are mounted on a piece of sturdy wood the right length to suit the job. Alternatively make up your own clamping devices with a few offcuts screwed directly to a bench or a piece of heavy plywood.

Screw two parallel boards down with stout No. 10 screws and plane up two pairs of hardwood wedges about 200mm long. Place the glued frame between the boards and tap the wedges together with a hammer to tighten it. This is a simple, effective solution to an expensive problem, and works equally well for sluing up large tops, although these will require further pairs of wedges.

Vices

A good woodworking vice will hold wood firmly, leaving your hands free to saw, chisel, mark or drill. As with all other tools, the best vice to buy is the most expensive you can afford. The vice on the workbench on page 49 is attached with four coachbolts. It is very strong, will grip large pieces of wood, and has a quick release mechanism which allows you to close or open the \'ice without turning the screw handle.

For occasional small projects you can use a small vice which clamps onto a table top or to a temporary work surface. It does not have the strength of a permanent bench vice, but it will serve perfectly well for most of the projects in this book.

DIAGRAMS. ABOVE: 1 A G-cramp padded with waste wood to protect the work- holds the pieces of a halving joint in place while the glue sets. 2 Sash cramps hold the corners of this dowelled frame together while the joints sit. Use a try-square to ensure the assembly is-square- 3 A good alternative method of checking the -corners is to measure the diagonals to see that they are equal. 4 To make your own mitre cramps use small blocks of wood, as show on, at each corner and drawstring through each and around the whole work to hold it all together. 5 Sash cramps arc used to hold large glued surfaces.

Power tools

Most professional woodworkers do not use hand tools such as drills and saws when a power tool will do the job much quicker and often more accurately. larger workshops and factories, of course, cut, drill and shape the wood using large and very expensive machinery which does the job almost automatically.

The most common power tools used by the home woodworkers are the drill, circular saw, jig saw and sander. The versatile drill is a virtual necessity; it can drill holes in wood, metal, and even glass. Drill attachments convert the drill into a sander, circular saw, jig saw, or even a small lathe.

A circular saw, jig saw, and sander are very convenient for the busy woodworker, particuarly for cutting large sheets of plywood or chipboard, and often produce a faster, more accurate job than the equivalent hand tools.

Using power tools safely

All power tool, are dangerous iif they are not used caretully. Professional woodworkers treat power tools with a great deal of respect and form good working habits so that safety becomes almost second nature to them. It is most important not to worry or hurry when using a power tool. Uncertainty and hesitation cause accidents. Read the manufacturer's instructions carefully before using the tool. Use all machines respectfully and carefully, but with confidence.

Before using any electrical tool, first check the wiring and replace any cut or frayed wire immediately. Check the plug frequently. Always unswitch and, for added safety, remove the plug from the socket when working on the tool or when changing the blade. When working with a power tool the flex tends to get in the way. The best solution is to use a fairly long flex and pass it over your shoulder. This is particularly important when cutting with the circular saw. Another important safety point is never to wear loose clothing or have a tie dangling. Roll up sleeves and tie up long hair to prevent it getting caught in the machine. Make it a habit to check all these safety points when you use the tools.

Use the tools with a moderate amount of pressure. Drill bits and saw blades become dull with use, and if too much pressure is needed it may be necessary to resharpen them. If the tools are not sharp enough, the blades will cause burns in the wood and may even wear out the motors
Accurate cutting and drilling requires practice. Power tools feel strange when you start to use them, but you w ill soon become accustomed to them and find it difficult to revert to labourious manual tasks which take a few seconds to do by machine.

Power drill

The power drill is relatively inexpensive to buy and quite safe to use. The two speed model is a good investment. The fast speed is used to drill wood, and the slower speed is for drilling metal and masonry to hang up shelves on to a brick wall, for example. Buy a drill which also has a hammer action for faster drilling into masonry. For general woodworking only, a simple fast speed drill is good enough.

The main features of the drill are the handle and trigger, which turns the power on and off, the body, containing the motor, and the chuck, which holds the drill bits securely. On variable speed models there is also a speed change switch, and a switch to turn on the hammer action if it has this feature.

To remove or install a drill bit, turn the chuck clockwise with the special key that cones with the drill, holding the body of the tool flrnly in the other hand.

A vertical drill stand allows you to drill holes perfectly vertical and to a precise depth. It is a very welcorne device for repetitious drilling and can be a useful aid.

Drill bits

For general drilling use ordinary twist drills available singly by diameter or in mixed-sized sets up to a diameter of 12mm. Twist drills are designed for metalwork only but they are widely used in woodworking to drill clearance and pilot holes for wood screws. For faster, cleaner holes in making dowel joints, for example, use special machine auger bits or dowel hits.

The most useful drill bits for drilling large holes are the flat bits ranging from 6.5mm up to about 38mm in diameter. Flat bits are used only in power drills. The larger sizes can be dangerous to use, particularly if the drill is hand held. The drill should be mounted in a drill stand to keep it stable when drilling large holes with flat bits.

To mount the hit in the drill, unplug the drill and turn the chuck by hand to enlarge the opening. Insert the hit, tighten the chuck by hand to hold the bit in place, and finish tightening with the chuck key.

Practise drilling holes that are straight and square with the wend. It is quite difficult to judge whether you are holding the drill vertically: stand a try-square on the workbench next to the drill to guide you, or get another person to tell you whether the drill is vertical.

Most drill bits can be sharpened with special tools and devices available at hardware shops.

Attachments for the drill

A drill stand is invaluable for drilling accurate vertical holes to exact depths. Most drill manufacturers sell stands for use with their drills. Mount the drill firmly and cramp the work being drilled to the bench below if necessary and use the handle to lower the drill into the work. The drill stand has a depth adjustment; to drill a series of holes to exactly the same depth you simply set the depth, test it on an offcut and then drill the holes one after the other.

You can also buy a horizontal stand to mount the drill for use with wire brushes, sanding discs and even a grinding wheel attachment.
See manufacturer's catalogue for the accessories available for the basic power drill. The most useful ones are the circular saw and the sanding attachments.

Circular saw attachment

For cutting thin plywood up to about 12mi thickness and for cutting small softwood and hardwood sections, use the circular saw attachment for the drill. It takes time to connect the drill to a saw and if you need a circular saw often it may be better to buy an integral circular saw.

The saw blades of the circular saw attachment are either 125 or 150mm in diameter, giving depth of cut between 38 and 45mm, but in practice the cut is limited by the power of the drill motor and you will soon learn by experience what kind of cuts your saw attachment can make.

Follow the manufacturer's instructions when assembling the saw attachment, and use it with great care. Read the safety instructions on page 40 and follow them carefully. When used safely the circular saw attachment is a very versatile and convenient war of getting more use from your drill.

Use it exactly as you would an integral circular saw.

Sanding attachments

For rough sanding such as stripping paint off old furniture, a flexible disc attachment is very useful. A circular disc of glasspaper is mounted on to a rubber pad or a circular disc and the tool is then used either free hand or as a rigid bench sander on a horizontal stand.

For fine sanding in preparation for applying a finish, use an orbital sanding attachment. Begin with a medium coarse paper, and progress to very fine glasspaper for a really smooth finish.

For even better results buy an inexpensive integral sander.

Cutting

For most jobs you can saw without a fence, guiding the saw along the line using the small notch in the sole plate. First set the depth of cut to saw all the way through the wood or perhaps part of the way for making grooves. Hold the handle firmly with one hand and the body of the saw with the other. Concentrate on the sawing and if interrupted, do not look up before shutting the saw off.

To make long cuts in timber or plywood parallel to the edge use the rip fence which comes with the saw or for the best results, particularly in cutting up large sheets, clamp a straight edge to the work and use it to guide the saw along. Notice that the guide must be set a distance away from the cut. Determine the exact distance by trying it on an offcut and write the measurement on the straight edge for future reference. The saw blade removes 2 to 4mm of wood, so make sure to cut on the waste side of the line to end up with the exact size measured to the line.

Keep the saw clean and have it maintained regularly and repaired by the manufacturer. The saw blades will need periodic sharpening or they will cut unevenly or burn the wood. Take then to a large hardware shop who will have it done for you.

To change blades, make sure that the teeth face in the right direction, indicated by the arrow on the blade. First shut off the power then tighten the nut and washer with the spanner provided with the saw.

Circular saw blades.

1 Crosscut blade for smooth cuts across the grain

2 Abrasive blade for slate, plastics, tiles and masonry.

3 Rip blade for rough cutting with the grain.

4 Combination blade for ripping and crosscuttng.

5 Carbide-tipped blade for timber or harder materials.

Other power tools

Circular saw

The integral circular saw is inconstant use in any woodworking shop. Small saws are available to take 125mm diameter blades, but for more general use such as cutting up thick sheets of plywood buy one to take 188mm blades. There are several types of blade for various jobs. The rough rip blade cuts with the grain, the finer crosscut saw cuts across the grain, but the best blade is the combination blade which will do both ripping and crosscutting.

For the very best results buy a more expensive carbide tipped blade which is longer lasting and cuts cleanly through almost all materials.

The circular saw can he a very dangerous tool if not used properly. Follow the safety instructions *** and make a habit of using the saw carefully, without rushing the work. Always hold it firmly and do not let go of the tool if the blade should grab the wood and kick the saw. A little practice will give you confidence in sawing at the right speed.

The saw is fitted with a spring guard which automatically covers the blade as you pull it away from the wood.

Jigsaw

In many ways jig saws are the most versatile of all power saws. A jig saw is much easier and safer to use than a circular saw. The blade works with an up and down action, cutting on the up stroke. Although it is intended mainly to cut circles and irregular shapes in wood, it can also he used to make crosscuts and short ripcuts in wood, plywood and chipboard. There are many types of blades, from the very fine toothed blades for cutting metal to the coarser blades used in rough cutting of wood.

Buy a good quality, robust jig saw with enough power to cut through at least 19mm plywood. It is extremely frustrating, when using a cheap saw, when the blade drifts or slants when cutting through heavy material. The high cost of plywood justifies the more expensive model.

The method for holding the blade in place varies from model to model, but it is usually tightened by means of a special Allen key which comes with the saw. Blade-changing is very quick and you should keep a few of each kind on hand and change to the right one for each job.

Most sawing with the jig saw is done by following a curve by eye. I told the handle finny and go only as fast through the wood as the saw will let you. If the blade causes smoking or burning you are trying to saw too fast or the blade is dull. The blades are disposable, so throw away the dull one and insert a sharp one.

Although it is a safer tool to use than the circular saw, the jig saw is still a dangerous tool and must be treated with respect. The most common accidents result from cutting through the cord. Hang the lead over your shoulder as you work to keep it away from the blade. Always clamp the work to be cut, checking that the saw blade will not pass through the bench. Never, never reach underneath near the blade to hold the wood, as this is extremely dangerous. Make a habit of using the correct techniques and the jig saw will be a safe reliable tool.

The jig saw is not designed to cut straight lines like the circular saw, but with a wooden fence or straight edge it can make a reasonably straight cut across or along the grain. Clamp the straight edge the appropriate distance from the line to he cut and guide the saw carefully along it. Do not force the saw. If the blade starts to drift pull the saw back and gently re-cut along the correct path. The finish with a jig saw is quite rough so cut about a millimetre on the waste side of the line to allow you to clean the cut with a plane.

To make frequent crosscuts it is worth making a T-square guide out of two pieces of wood screwed and glued at an exact 90deg angle. Make the front piece longer and cut it off with the jig saw, using the guide to line up the cut end with the line. Clamp the T-square on to the wood to make the cut.

A homemade T-square makes the job of jig sawing much easier. To make one, simply glue and screw together tar pieces of softwood at right angles and cut off one arm of the T by running the jig saw along the guide indicated by the dotted lines in 1.

When using the T-square, line up the cut-offend parallel with the cutting mark, shown in 2, clamp it dowrn and then run the saw along.

3 Clamp a straight edge firmly across the work you are cutting, as a guide for the saw.

Power sander

Hand-sanding is hard work. For small, occasional jobs use a sanding block with glasspaper to smooth down the surface. For larger projects use a power sander. Very rough work requires an expensive belt sander but for most fine finishing work a small and inexpensive orbital sander is just right.

There are several types of power sander on the market. Flexible disc sanding attachments fit on to the end of the electric drill. Disc sanders are used mostly for rough work and with a special huffing attachment for bringing up polished surfaces.

Belt sanders are intended for fairly rough sanding such as taking paint off old furniture. They usually cone fitted with a special dusthag which collects the sanding dust. These machines are quite difficult to control and are not recommended for fine finishing.

The best machine for furniture finishing is the orbital sander. There is a small inexpensive model which will do the work very well and a larger industrial model fitted with a dust bag.

Orbital sanders work with a fast oscillating motion, the pad constantly moving in small circles. When a coarse paper is used, however, you can often see small circular marks. These are caused by loose pieces of grit getting caught under the sandpaper, and are prevented by brushing off the surface frequently.

There are several grades of glasspaper for use in the orbital sander. It is useful to have a supply of coarse, medium and fine glasspaper. The method of changing the paper varies according to the type of sander but is quite easy on all machines.

Start sanding with coarse or medium paper, depending on the surface. Hold the sander in both hands, applying even pressure. The sander will not work any faster or better if it is pushed down hard; a light pressure, in fact, gives the best results. For the final sanding use fine paper and carefully go over the entire surface, overlapping strokes as you move the sander along.

The sander can be moved slowly with or across the grain, but it is a good habit to sand with the grain. For an especially fine finish it may be necessary to finish off sanding by hand with a very fine garnet paper. Remember the professional trick of wiping the surface with a slightly damp rag to raise the grain and allowing the surface to dry before the final sanding.

The portable electric router

The router has always been considered to be one of those tools which is used only by people in the trade. In fact the router is the easiest to use of all the portable power tools. It is an ideal tool for the amateur woodworker because it does a lot of otherwise very difficult jobs safely and easily.

As with other power tools such as the saw and drill, the router is basically an electric motor with cutters mounted on a shaft. But unlike drills and saws which perform only one basic function, the router can be used with a variety of cutters to do many different jobs, Such as cutting grooves and rebates, shaping edges or making dovetails.

Each cutter is bought separately to do a specific job, but after a while you accumulate enough cutters to make the router very versatile. The cutters have a short shaft which is either 6.5mm or 9.5mm in diameter and which fits into a matching hole on the router. They are fastened either with a special Allen key or with a spanner provided with the router. Some large routers will take either size shaft but the small inexpensive routers will usually only take the 6.5mm shaft. When buying cutters, make sure to specify the shaft diameter.

Routers consist of the main body containing the motor, the shaft which holds the cutters and the adjustable base-plate which is moved along the wood surface as the router cuts. the base-plate can be adjusted up or down to expose more or less cutter and thus to give a deep or shallow cut. It is always best to test the cut on a piece of scrap wood to make sure the depth of cut is exactly right.

The most common uses of the router are to make grooves and to cut rebates and moulded edges on items of furniture. Keep in mind that the router relies on speed of rotation rather than on power for its cutting action and the depth of cut will therefore be limited. If, for example, you are cutting an 181mm wide groove in a piece of blockboard, it will be necessary probably to make two or three runs to get the required depth. For each run you simply adjust the depth another 3mm or so.

Once you get used to the router, you will find it the most useful tool in the workshop. You can increase its usefulness by buying or making various jigs and guides, such as a circular cutting guide or dovetail template. If you need further information, simply refer to the manufacturer's instructions.

Unlike the other portable power tools, the router is never used free hand. For most jobs such as rebating or grooving you use an adjustable fence which nuns along the edge of the wood to guide the cutter parallel to the edge. But you can also run the base-plate against a straight-edge clamped onto the wood as a guide. Most moulding cutters have a built-in guide. the small extension on the base of the cutter is like a wheel which runs along the side of the wood to guide the cutter along the edge in cutting mouldings and rebates.

To use the router safely, first make sure the work is cramped down first, then unplug the machine While you make sure the cutter is mounted firmly and the plate and fences are adjusted correctly. When using the router, guide it along so that it cuts smoothly, fast enough not to burn the wood but not so fast that it causes the wood to split and the motor to work too hard. You'll get used to the sound of the motor and adjust your motion accordingly.

Remember that the cutter, which rotates clockwise, should always cut 'into' the wood. Hold the handles firmly with both hands to make sure not to get the electric cord caught in the machine.

After finishing the cut, move the router up and away from the wood in a continuous motion, and shut off the motor, making sure it has stopped before putting the router down.

With practice you will find the router a useful tool for finishing edges, making mouldings and, when you become more advanced, for cutting dovetail joints.

The router can be fitted with guide which fits onto the base of the tool. Push the base along the edge of work to make cuts parallel with the edge. A guide like this is essential, since the router is rarely used freehand

For a highly professional edge to your work, the router is the tool to use and easy to manipulate as long as the instructions are followed.

There is a wide range of cutters available.

1 The chamfer or bevel bit cuts the edge of the timber at a 45-degree angle.

2 The beading bit is used frequently when a decorative edge is required.

3 The rounding-over bit can be used to round over tile edge or, as shown here with a step-dome for a mixed effect.

4 A core-box bit is used for cutting channels or grooves in the surface of the timber. To make your own tongued-and-grooved panelling, this would he the router to use.